语言学概论 厦大讲义

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语言学概论

Chapter 1 Introduction   
Chapter 2 Phonetics & Phonology   
Chapter 3 Morphology   
Chapter 4 Syntax   
Chapter 5 Semantics   
Chapter 6 pragmatics   
Chapter 7 Historical linguistics   
Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics   
Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics   
Chapter 10 Language Acquisition   
课本外练习资料中的考点内容   


Chapter 1    Introduction

1. What is linguistics?
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.
2.普通语言学 General Linguistics
The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.
3.语言 language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
The word “language” preceded by the zero-article implies that linguistics studies not any particular language.
Language 一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。
Language is not an isolated phenomenon; it's a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings. 语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。

曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家
Sapir---language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.
Hall---language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.
Chomsky---from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.

4. In order to discover the nature of the underlying language system, what the linguists have to do first is to study language facts.
5. 判断题 Language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facts, and so it's hardly possible for the linguistics to deal with it all at once.
6. First drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in languages. 最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。

7. Design Features - 美国语言学家 Charles Hockett 提出了语言的识别特征
It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。   
    Arbitrariness 任意性
    Productivity 多产性
    Duality 双重性
    Displacement 移位性
    Cultural transmission 文化传递
⑴arbitrariness
There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.
The relationship between the name and the meaning of a word is quite arbitrary.
P.S.: the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions
⑵Productivity
Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.
⑶Duality
Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.
⑷Displacement
Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.
⑸Cultural transmission
Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and to learn the details of any language system. This showed that language is culturally transmitted, but not by instinct. While animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.

Q: Why do we say language is arbitrary?
Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer.
The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language; it’s only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance.
A typical example to illustrate the ‘arbitrariness’ of language is ‘a rose by any other name would smell as sweet’.

Q: Why is productivity unique to langauge?
⑴The productivity of language is the property which enables its users to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including the novel utterances that they have never said heard before,
⑵The feature is unique to human langauge because most animal communication system appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive.
⑶For example, bee dancing is used only to indicate nectar sources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the meaning.

8. Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学研究中的几对基本概念

Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写
If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not, it is said to be prescriptive.
Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.

Q: What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?
Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language data.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。
Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on“high”written language. 传统语法是规定性的，研究‘高级’书面语。

Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时
历时语言学 Diachronic linguistics
The study of language change through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.
共时语言学  Synchronical linguistics
The study of a given language at a given time.
In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.

Q: Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why?
Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. It will be impossible to describe language from a diachronic point of view, unless the various states of a language are successfully studied. 现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从 历时性角度对语言进行描述。

Speech and writing 口头语与书面语
Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, and more basic, but not the written form.
Reasons are:
1. Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution;
2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over 5,000 languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form.
3. A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.
4. Speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.

Q: Which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writing?

Langue and parole 语言和言语-瑞士语言学家 F.de Saussure
Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole in early 20th century in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.

Q: The distinction between langue and parole?
⑴langue is abstract, relatively stable
⑵parole is concrete, varies from person to person, from situation to situation.

Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用
Chomsky 美国语言学家 in 1950 针对 Saussure’s langue & parole 提出
He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.

Q: how is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s ?
Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study.
Their ideas differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, and competence is a property of the mind of each individual.

The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴

Q: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each study?
语音学&音系学
Phonetics---The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. It’s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages.
Phonology---The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. It's the study of sounds systems: the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.

形态学&句法学
Morphology---The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. It' s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.  
Syntax---The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. It's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language.  

语义学&语用学
Semantics---The study of meaning in language is called semantics. It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.
Pragmatics---The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.

应用语言学
Applied linguistics---The study of applications of linguistics (such as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics.  But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.

Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind. (心理语言学）
Sociolinguistics---the study of language with reference to society. （社会语言学）
Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics.（计算机语言学）


Chapter 2 Phonology

Phonic medium of language 语言的语音媒介
The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。

Q: How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the differences between say [i] and [i:], [p] and [ph], a phonetician or a philologist? Why? 语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?
Phonetics---description  of all speech sounds and their found differences.
Phonology---description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meanings.
A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cause differences in meaning.

1. Phonetics  组成
⑴Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 - longest established, mostly developed
⑵Auditory phonetics  听觉语音学
⑶Acoustic phonetics  声学语音学

Q: What are the three branches of phonetics? How do they contribute to the study of speech sound?
Articulatory---describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.
Auditory---studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.
Acoustic---studies the physical properties of speech sounds, the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.
发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。 听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。 声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。

2. ArticulatoryApparatus / Organs of Speech
    Pharyngeal cavity – 咽腔
    Oral cavity – 口腔 - greatest source of modification of air stream found here
    Nasal cavity – 鼻腔
3. The tongue is the most flexible, & responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other; the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French.

4.清音 Voiceless
When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.
5.浊音 Voicing
Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.

6.元音 Vowel
The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.
7.辅音 Consonants
The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.
8. How are the English consonants classified? By place of articulation & By manner of articulation
9.爆破音 stops
When a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive. They are [b] [p] [t] [d] [k] [g].
10. Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of [k] and [g], the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the sound [j]; the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sounds [t] and [d].
11. nasal consonants: [m] / [n] / [η]

12.宽式音标 Broad transcription
The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.
13.窄式音标 Narrow transcription
The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.

Q: Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one differ?
Broad transcription---one letter symbol for one sound.
Narrow transcription---diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.

14.超切分特征 Suprasegmental features
The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features; the main suprasegmental features include stress, ntonation and tone.
15. English has four basic types of intonation: Falling tone; Rising tone; Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone

Q: Explain the sequential rule, the assimilation rule and the deletion rule.
有序规则 Sequential rules
Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.
同化规则 Assimilation rules
The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by 'copying' a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.
省略规则 Deletion rule
It’s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it's orthographically represented.

16. Sequential rules 例子
If three consonants cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:
⑴the first phoneme must be /s/
⑵the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/
⑶the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/

17.音素 phone
A phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning. It’s a speech sound we use when speaking a language.
A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.
18.音位 Phoneme
The basic unit in phonology; it’s a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
19.音位变体 Allophones
Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.

Q: What’s a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?
Phone---a speech sound, a phonetic unit.
Phoneme---a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit.
Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.

20.最小对立对 Minimal pair
When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
Q: What is a minimal pair and a minimal set? Why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要?
Minimal pair---two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合.
Minimal set---a group of sound combinations with the above feature. 一组具有上述特征的语音组合.
By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes.
通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位.

21.互补分布 complementary distribution
Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.


Chapter 3 Morphology

1.形态学规则 Morphological rules
They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word.
In using the morphological rules, we must guard against Over-generalization.

2. Morphology: Inflectional morphology & Derivational morphology

3.词素 Morpheme
The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language.
4.自由词素 Free Morpheme
Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.
5.黏着词素 Bound morphemes
Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, and must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.

6.词干 Stem
A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.
7.词根 Root
Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.

8.词缀 Affix
The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.
9.曲折词缀 Inflectional affix
The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.
10.派生词缀 Derivational affixes
The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.

11.前缀 Prefix
Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes 'be-' and 'en(m)-'.
12.后缀 Suffix
Suffixes are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.

                       Free morphemes - Root
   Morphemes   
                       Bound morphemes - Affixes    Inflectional affixes & Derivational affixes  

   Prefix - Stem - Suffix
                     |
             root / base

13. Compound features:
⑴Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between.
⑵Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element.
⑶Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its component.  


Chapter 4    Syntax

1. syntax 这个单词源于 Greek, 本义是 arrangement.
2.我们把 syntax 的学习看作 a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentences.
3. A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge.
4.判断题：the syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.

5.句子 sentence
A structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.
6.句子的分类Types of sentences
        Simple sentence
        Coordinate or compound sentence
        Complex sentence
简单句-It consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.
并列句合成句-It contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “but”, ”and”. ect..
复合句-It contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.
复合句的特点：
⑴An embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause
⑵Most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a Subordinator, such as 'that'
⑶An embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes.
子句是一个语法单位，大部分子句要带一个被称为从属连词的引导词，如果子句作为秒年第秒年句单独 存在，它可能不是一个合乎规范的句子，除非改变他的形式。
7.主要子句 Matrix Clause
In a complexed sentence, the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.
8.从属子句 Embedded Clause (EC)
In a complete sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an EC .
9.定式子句 Finite Clause
A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone.
10. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence.

11.普遍语法 General grammar
A system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about nature language.
12.普遍语法的广义原则General Principles of Universal Grammar:
Case Condition 和 Adjacency Condition
格条件---a noun phrase must have Case and Case is assigned by V or P to the object position, or by AUX to the subject position. 名词词组必须有格，宾语的格是由动词或介词决定，而主语的格由助动词决定。
相邻条件---a case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other, it explains why no other phrasal category can intervene between a verb and its direct object. 格分派者和格接受者要相邻。这解释了为什么任何别的词组类不能插到动词和它的直接宾语之间。
13. Universal Grammar is believed to contain a parameter with the valves 增 and 减 set on the Adjacency condition. With English-type languages, the Adjacency Parameter is set to the 增 value, while for French-type language, the parameter is set to 减 value.

14.语法关系 Grammatical relations
The structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence.
15. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb, in many cases, grammatical relations refer virtually to 'who' does 'what' to 'whom'.
16. We usually refer to the grammatical relations as 'subject of' and 'direct object of'.
17. Combinational rules must be small in number so as not to create extra burdens on the human memory. Still these rules must be powerful enough to yield all the possible sentences, and rule out the impossible ones. 组合规则一定不能太多，以免给人的记忆带来过多的负担，用这些规则必须能组合出所有可能的句子，而 排除不可能的句子。
18. Rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties. It captures the ability of language to generate more constituents to a sentence and enables speakers to repeat syntactic constituents within the same sentence. 循环性体现了语言中的句子能有更多的成分，使说话者能在同一句子中重复一些句法成分。

19.句法类型 Syntactic category
A word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object.
20.谓语 Predicate
The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate.
21.判断题: A finite verb, informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense and mood. 一个限定动词被非正式称为句中主要动词，表达了人称、数、时态、语气限定的存在、行动或事件。

22.层次结构 Hierarchical structure
The sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.
23.表层结构 S-structure
A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.
24.深层结构 D-structure
A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement.
25. The hierarchical nature of sentence structure 句子结构层次特点
Sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase NP or verb phrase VP, grouped together.
26. In addition to the use of structural tree diagrams, linguists may show the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets and subscript labels.
27. The points at which the tree braches at various levels are called Branching nodes 分叉点

28.句法类型 Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called lexical category) or a phrase (called phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence.

                                                                Major 主要词类 open ,can add new words
                                                                              名、动、形、副词 N,V,Adj,Adv
                                    Lexical category
                                                                Minor 次要词类 close, words are fixed
Syntactic Categories                                           限定、助动、介、代、连、叹 Det,Aux,Prep,Pron,Conj,Int

                                                                   Noun Phrase            NP
                                    Phrasal category  Verb Phrase            VP
                                                                   Preposition Phrase  PP
                                                                   Adjective Phrase      AP

29. NP 有冠词、名词和子句组成，冠词是指示语，名词是核心词，子句是补足语。
      e.g.: NP 'the student who likes linguistics'
              consists of Det, N and S
              with Det being the Specifier, N the head, S the complement.
30. X 标杆理论 X-bar theory
A general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrases structure rules into a single format:
        X”→（Spec）X(Compl)
一种泛指的、高度抽象的图示，它把所有的词组结构规则概括为一种程式
       a. XP→（Spec）X
       b. X→X(Compl)

31.句法移位 Syntactic movement
Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent moves out of its original place to a new position.
32.转换原则 Transformation rules
Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.
33.移动α 规则 Move α
A general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.
34.移位类型 Syntactic Movement
        NP-movement---it’s involving the movement of a noun phrase. 名词短语的移位
        WH-movement---it changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative. 陈述变疑问句
        AUX-movement---the movement of an auxiliary verb to the initial position of the sentence. 助动词移位到句首的移位

EX.: Use the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a labeled constituent structure tree diagram for each of the following sentences.
⑴The tower on the hill collapsed in the wind.
⑵Mary promised John to see the doctor.

Q: Why is syntax regarded as a system of rules?
As a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical setences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it conforms to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. If, on the other hand, a sentence violates a rule according to which words are organized, then native speakers will judge it to be an impossible sentence of that langauge.
Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a langauge speaker.
For any natural language, it's the set of rules that makes it possible for the speakers to produce, comprehend and memorize the vase number of sentences of their native language.


Chapter 5    Semantics

Major views of meaning study:
The naming Theory---希腊 Scholar Plato
The contextualism---观点代表人是 John Firth，但 Bloomfield 阐述更有说服力
The Conceptualism---Ogden 和 Richards 用 classic semantic triangle of significance

                                  thought/reference
                                   /                            \
              symbol/form        ——             referent

The Behaviorism---英国 Bloomfield 提出，使用了 Jack 和 Jill 故事阐明 The naming theory 的局限性:
⑴It’s applicable to Nouns only.
⑵Within the category of nouns, there are those which denote things that don't exist in the real world.   

1.命名论 The naming theory
The naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one, was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, and so words are just names or labels for things.
According naming theory words are just names or labels for things.
2.意念论 The conceptualism
It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
The contextulist view was further strengthened by Bloomfield, who drew on behaviourist psychology when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.
3.语境论 Contextualism
It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Here are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.
4.行为主义论 Behaviorism
It refers to the attempt to define the meaning of a language form as the "situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer". This theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.

5. The meaning of a sentence is not the total sum of the meanings of all its components.
6. Every utterance occurs in a particular spatiotemporal situation, the main components of which, apart from the place and time of the utterance,  also include the speaker and the hearer, the action they are performing at the time, the various objects and event existed in the situation.
7. Two aspects of Sentence meaning: grammatical and semantic meaning.
8. The analysis of meaning is a highly abstract and complicated matter.
9. Selectional restrictions---Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules.

Q: What’s grammaticality? What might take a grammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless?
什么是语法性？一个语法上有意义的句子可能由于什么而不是有意义的?
Grammaticality---the grammatical well-formedness of a sentence.
A sentence may be well-formed grammatically, i.e. it conforms to the grammatical rules of the language, but it is not necessarily semantically well-formed, i.e. it may not make sense at all.  

                                 sense
10. Lexical meaning      
                                 reference                              
11.意义 Sense
It’s concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It’s the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and de-contextualized.
12.所指意义 Reference
It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, and physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

Q: how are sense and reference related?
Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and de-contextualized.
Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real, and physical world, it is a matter of relationship between the form and reality.


13.主要的意义关系
Synonymy; Antonymy; Hyponymy; Polysemy; Homonymy

14.同义词 Synonymy
It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.
15. Synonyms分类
(1)Dialectal synonyms---synonyms used in different regional dialects     
(2)Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style
(3)Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning
(4)Semantically different synonyms
例子：
(1)    British English Lift    Luggage  Lorry    Petrol    Flat    windscreen  torch American English Elevator Baggage Truck    Gasoline  Apartment  windshield  flashlight
(2)    kick the bucket=pop off=die=pass away=decease
5.Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality.
6. Some synonyms differ in their collocation.
例子:Accuse?.of    charge?.  with        rebuke?.for    sour milk Rotten tomatoes  addled eggs rancid bacon or butter

16.反义词 Antonymy
It’s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.
17. 分类 (1) Gradable antonyms 分级反义词 (a matter of degree)
                  例子 Old—middle-aged—young; hot-warm-cold Antonym
              (2) Complementary antonyms 互补反义词 a matter of degree between     
                  two extremes 例子    Alive—dead;    male—female;
              (3) Relational opposites 关系反义词 (中间可以加成分，如上、中、下)
                  father-son; teacher-pupil; doctor-patient; buy-sell; above-below

18.多义词 Polysemy
It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.
19. A polysemous word, i.e, a word with several meanings, is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word.

20.同音(形)异义 Homonymy
It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
Complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence.
21.分类                Homophones—when two words are identical in sound
                                                     e.g.: Rain/reign; night/knight; piece/peace; leak/leek
     Homonymy     Homographs—when two words are identical in spelling
                                                     e.g.: Bow v. /bow n. tear v./ tear n  lead v./lead n.
                            Complete homonyms—when two words are identical in both spelling and sound
                                                     e.g.: Fast adj./ fast v. scale n./scale v.
22.同音异义 Homophones
It refers to two words are identical in sound, e.g. rain/reign.
23.同形异义 Homographs
It refers to two words are identical in form, e.g. tear v./tear n.

24.上下义关系 Hyponymy
It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.

25. Analysis of meaning 意义的分析
(1)Componential analysis—a way to analyze lexical meaning 对词汇成分的分析
(2)Predication analysis—a way to analyze sentence meaning 对句子意义的分析
26.成分分析法 Componential Analysis----分析词汇抽象意义
It’s a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.
This approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.
This is parallel to the way a phoneme is analyzed into smaller components called distinctive features.
这一方法和把一个音位分析成更小的叫作区别性特征的方法类似。
Plus '+' and minimums '-' signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent, these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. One advantage of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning. 加减号用来表示某一语义特征在一个词义中是存在或缺省，这些特征用大写字母来写。

Q: in what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?成分分析和把音位分析为区别性特征有何相似之处？
In the light of componential analysis, the meaning of a word consists of a number of distinctive meaning features, the analysis breaks down the meaning of the word into these features; it is these different features that distinguish word meaning similarly; a phoneme is considered as a collection of distinctive sound features, a phoneme can be broken down into these distinctive sound features and it is these sound features that distinguish different sounds.

27.述谓结构分析 Predication Analysis 由 British Linguist G. Leech 提出
It’s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis.
Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands, etc.
通过对论元 argument 和谓语 predicate 的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。
28. In the semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication.
Predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. It applies to all forms of a sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative.
Predication consists of Arguments and Predicates. 述谓是句子基本单位，是对句子的抽象化，适用于包括陈述句、祈使句和疑问句。述谓由一个或数个论元和一个谓词组成。
An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence, a predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.
论元是一个的逻辑的一个参与者，谓词是关于论元的陈述，或说明一个句子的论元间的逻辑关系。
29. According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we classify the predications into two-place predication (having two arguments), one-place predication (having one argument), and no-place predication (having no argument).
30.判断题：Although predicate and argument are the same kind of unit in terms of their componential make-up, they have different roles in the whole predication; the predicate can be regarded as the main element, for it includes tense, modality, ect.; it may also said to govern the arguments for it determines the number of nature of the arguments.

31.句子间的意义关系 Sense relation between sentences
X is synonymous with Y.
X entails Y.
X presupposes Y.
X is a contradiction.
X is semantically anomalous.
32.预设 Presupposition
It’s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.
33.蕴涵 Entailment
Entailment can be illustrated by the following 2 sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B.
A: Mark married a blonde heiress. B: Mark married a blonde.


Chapter 6    Pragmatics

1. Semantics 和 Pragmatics 的区分
Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.
The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from its context.

2.语境 Context
The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language; it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
3.语境中听者与说话者 shared knowledge is of two types:
The knowledge of the language they use, the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.

4.句子意义 Sentence meaning
It refers to a sentence and is a grammatical concept; the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.
5.话语意义 Utterance meaning
It refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication; it becomes an utterance and should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered.
6. Sentence meaning 与 Utterance meaning 的区别
Sentence meaning---abstract, decontextualized.
Utterance meaning---concrete, contextualized; it’s based on sentence meaning; it’s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence into a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
区分句子和话语，类似区分语义和语用学，关键在于是否考虑语境。
While most utterances take the form of sentences, i.e. most utterances are complete sentences in terms of syntax, some utterances are not, and some can’t even be restored to complete sentences.   

语用学的几个重要的理论
7. 言语行为理论 Speech act theory 英国哲学家 John Austin 在 20 世纪 50 年代末提出
It’s an important theory in the pragmatic study of language; it’s a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question 'what do we do when using language?'

在此理论基础上美国哲学语言学家 John Searle 区分定义了叙述句  Constatives 和行为句 performatives, 之后，他又定义了言内行为、言外行为和言后行为，对言外行为分成了 5 类  
The concept of causatives & performatives, the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, the perlocutionary act and the 5 categories of illocutionary act - suggested and formulated by J.R. Searle and constitute the speech act theory.

言内行为 Locutionary Act
A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, & clauses; it’s the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
言外行为 Illcotionary Act
An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it’s the act performed in saying something.
言后行为 Perlocutionary  Act
Perlocuationary Act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.

※在这三种行为中，语言学家对言外行为最感兴趣 cos this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention, and in their study of language communication, linguists are most interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and also how his intention is recognized by the hearer.

8.叙述句 Constatives
Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable and bearing the truth-value.
9.行为句 Performatives
Performatives are sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.

10. 言外行为分成 5 类
阐述性 Representatives---to commit the speaker to something’s being the Case, to the truth of what has been said. 例词: stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing 最有代表性,
指令性 Directives---are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. 例词: inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, warning, threatening, ordering 是特有实例
承诺性 Commissives---when speaking the speaker puts himself under obligation. 例词: promising, undertaking, vowing 最典型
表达类 Expressives---the speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs. 例词: apologizing, thanking, congratulating
宣告类 Declarations---the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality. 例句: I now declare the meeting open / I appoint you chairman of the committee / I fire you.
这五类 differ in their strength or force.

11. 合作原则 Cooperative Principle (CP) 逻辑哲学家 Paul Grice 提出
It’s proposed and formulated by P. Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.
12. 合作原则的准则 4 Maxims of Cooperative Principle
数量 the maxim of Quantity---Make your contribution as informative as required; Do not make your contribution more informative than is required 你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求  
质量 the maxim of Quality---Do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence 不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话
关系 the maxim of relation---be relevant 使你的话与话题相关  
方式 the maxim of manner---Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity; Be brief / be orderly 避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序
13.会话含义 Conversational implicatures
According to P. Grice, it refers to the extra meaning not contained in the utterance, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CP. 话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意。


Chapter 7    Historical linguistics

1. 历时语言学 Diachronic linguistics
A term used replacing historical linguistics, that is the study of language change at various time points at various historical stage.
The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence.

Language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.
Sound change includes changes in vowel sounds, and in the loss, gain and movement of sounds.
The most vigorous and on-going change in the historical development of a language is the change in its Vocabulary.
Language change is essentially a matter of change in the Grammar.
In general, linguistic change in the sound system and the vocabulary of a language is more noticeable than that in other systems of the grammar.

Bilingual, pidgin＆creole speakers contribute to the formation of 新语言变体

2.描述变化的本质
All living languages change with time; language change is not only universal and inevitable, but also systematic, extensive, on-going, and gradual. Language change is a rule-governed behavior, involving all components of the grammar.
3.语言变化的原因
Sound assimilation, Rule simplification and internal borrowing & Grammar
⑴语音同化 Sound assimilation
The physiological effect of one sound on another.
Assimilative processes are phonological changes due to physiological mechanisms; it also involves vowel nasalization and morphological and lexical changes.
⑵规则简化 Rule simplification
It’s a type of spontaneous morphological rule change involves exceptional plural forms of nouns; the same kind of analogous change is exemplified by the regularization of some borrowed words whose plural formation rule is different from the regular English.
⑶内部借用 Internal Borrowing
The application of a rule from one part of the grammar to another part of the grammar by analogy to its earlier operation.
It’s motivated by the need to lessen the burden on memory; it represents a continual readjustment of a language’s grammatical system as it develops from one state of equilibrium to another.
⑷规则细化 Elaboration
It occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness.
⑸社会因素 Social triggers
⑹文化转移 Cultural transmission

4.语义转换 Semantic shift
It’s a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related meaning.
语义细化 Elaboration
Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness - 语义缩小 less general or inclusive
语义扩大化 Semantic broadening
The process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historical earlier denotation

5.首字母缩略词 Acronym - A word created by combining the initials of a number of words.
6.混合法 Blending - A process  of forming a new word by combining parts of two other words.
7.缩写词 Abbreviation - A shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form.
8.略写词 Clipping - A kind of  abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases.
9.逆向构词法 Back-formation - A process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.
10.派生法 Derivation - It refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words.

11.语系 Family language
A group of historically related languages that have developed from a comon ancestral language.
12. A language family is established by the use of a method known as Comparative reconstruction.
13. Reliable linguistic signs of family relationships include systematic phonological, morphological, and semantic resemblances among the vocabulary items of different languages.
14.原始语 Protolanguage
The original form of a language family which has ceased to exist.
15.同源词 Cognate
A word in one language which is similar in form and meaning to a word in another language because both languages have descended from a common source.

16. 英语发展的三个历史时期及历史事件
Old English (449-1100):
Began with the invasion of the British Isles by English-speaking Anglo- Saxons from Europe, ended with the arrival of Norman French invaders, historically known as the Norman Conquest.
Old English dates back to the mid-fifth century when Anglo-Saxons invaded the British Isles from northern Europe.
In old English, nearly half of the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative, and accusative cases.

Middle English (1100-1500)
It’s distinguished from the Old English by the Norman Conquest.
Shakespeare’s plays and Milton’s Poems 受欧洲文艺复兴运动影响最大?
Middle English began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England under William, and had been deeply influenced by Norman French in vocabulary and grammar - Norman Conquer makrked the dawning of the Middle English period.

Modern English (1500 up to now)
The result of the cultural influence of the European renaissance movement.

17.元音大交替 Great Vowel Shift - One of the most obvious change in English is the systematic and regular change in the Vowel Change.
A series of systematic sound change in the history of English that involved seven long vowels and consequently led to one of the major discrepancies between English pronunciation and its spelling system.
Great Vowel Shift - Sound Loss & Sound Gain

18.英语的语言变化 linguistic change of English (loss, addition, change)
声音 Sound change
形态 Morphological change 词汇 Lexical change 句法 Syntactic change
语义 Semantic change

19. Old English contained a number of morphological rules that are extinct.
20. Rule addition 的特征或现象
⑴Particle movement, 古英语没有此现象，现代英语有
⑵Auxiliary verbs and main verbs 的区分，16 世纪前没有此现象
21.在古英语中，句子的顺序是 SVO, VSO, SOV 和 OSV - The loss of case contrasts was compensated for with the adoption of the consistent SVO order.

22. The ancient adjective agreement rule was dropped out of English mainly because the inflectional endings to show agreement in case, number and gender became distinct.

23. Affixes loss 特征
The most widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes.
24. The most dramatic morphological loss concerns the loss of gender and case markings. Old English had a gender-marking system - 3 genders

25.词汇的增加 borrowing 和 word formation.
The most obvious way in which modern English differs lexically from old English is the number of borrowed words from other languages.
New words have made their entry into English via word formation rules.
During the Renaisance, many Latin and Greek words became part of the educated Egnlish lexicon.
26. French loan words did not always replace Old English words, but in many instances they existed alongside the native English vocabulary. Sometimes, french loan words were used in conjunction with native English words to create Contrast.

27. Sound loss 的特征或现象
语音的移位大多数是因为 influence of foreign languages. 其中 French 影响最大

28. 儿童语法接近成人语法 Children’s approximation toward the adult grammar
A generally accepted view among language acquisition scholars is that children acquire their native language not through formal instruction of grammatical rules; they often construct their personal information they hear.


Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics

1. 社会语言学 Sociolinguistics
It’s the subdiscipline of linguistics that studies language within socical context.
Sociolinguists are concerned with the social singificance of language variation and language use in different speech communities including regional, ethnic and social groups.
In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are treated as memebers of social groups.
Social groups may be defined in a number of ways besides regionally. It may distinguish itself from the rest of the community by its distinct ethnic affiliation.

2. 语言学家最感兴趣的三个语言变体 Regional dialects, sociolects or social dialects and registers.
区域变体 Regional Variation
Speech varies according to the particular area where a speaker comes from;   
    e.g. American English and British English, ect.
Regional variation of language is the most discernible and definable.
社会方言 Socialect
A variety of language used by people belonging to a prticular social class.
语域 Register
A functional speech or language variety that involves degrees of formality depending on the speech situation concerned.
语域变体 Register Varieties=Situational Dialects
Registers are language varieties appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users.
语言变体 Speech Variety
It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. The distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, or a combination of linguistic features.
Considered a more neutral term, speech variety is sometimes used intead of standard langauge, vernacular language, dialect, pidgin, creole, ect..
使用域 Domain
It refers to a phenomenon that most bilingual communities have one thing in common, that’s, a fairly clear functional diferentiation of the two languages in respect of speech situations, for example, the Home Domain, Employment Domain.
口音 Accent
If refers to a way of pronunciation which tells the listener something about the speaker’s regional or social background.
言语社区 Speech Community
It refers to a group of people who form a community and share at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms.
语码转换 Code-Switching
It refers to a bilingual speaker often uses two languages alternatively during a conversation with another bilingual speaker. 人们在交际中根据需要轮流使用不同的语言、方言或其他变体。

3.特殊语域的区分 How to distinguish a particular register from other registers?
⑴distinctive words
⑵using words or phrases in a particular way
⑶special grammatical constructions, such as scientific language, or legal language  

4. Stylistic variation in a person’s speech, or writing, usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.

5.通用语 Lingua Franca
A variety of language that serves as a common speech for social contact among groups of people who speak different native languages or dialects.
6.洋泾浜语 Pidgin 边缘性接触语言=有限的词汇+缩减的语法结构 by 其他语言的本族语者
A marginal contact language with a limited vocabulary and reduced grammatical structures, used by native speakers of other languages as a means of business communication.
7.混合语 Creoles
It’s originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community, e.g. French-based creoles spoken in Haiti and Louisiana.
8. The original Lingua Franca is believed to be an Indian-based pidgin used in Mediterranean ports.  
Lingua franca, an italian term literally meaning 'frankish language' or 'frankish tongue'.
9. The grammatical features such as case, tense, mood and voice are generally absent in pidgins, & a pidgin typically lacks inflectional morphemes.
Most of the historical pidgins have become extinct.
English-based pidgins are characterized by an absence of any complex grammatical morphology and a limited vocabulary.
Pidgins have strict rules for determining word orders to compensate for the lack of case endings on nouns.
10. Creoles 最早来自长在南美洲的西班牙或葡萄牙裔。

Q: 通用语 Lingua Franca 和洋泾浜语 Pidgin 的区别
⑴Pidgin is used for some practical purposes, such as trading, by groups of people who do not know each other’s langauge; Lingua Franca may have native speakers such as English;
⑵Pidgin is not a native language of a particular region, but simply a marginal language used by people whose cultures are sharply separated and whose business contact is very specialized.

11.语言计划 Language Planning
It’s certain authorities, such as the government, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling systems, across regional boundaries. It’s one way out of the communication dilema and is language standardization known as language planning.
12.标准语 Standard Language
A superposed prestigious variety of language of a community or nation, usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.
判断题 The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language; it's the langauge employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the langaue is taught as a foreign or second language.
The standard language of many countries is also designated as the national or official language.
13. Standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language.
14. The spoken language of modern China 普通话 embodies the pronunciation of the Beijing dialect, the grammar of Northern chinese dialects, & the vocabulary of modern colloquial Chinese.
15. Language varieties other han the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular languages.
少数民族方言 Ethnic Dialect
It refers to a phenomenon that within a society speech variation may come about cos of different ethnic backgrounds.

16.双语 Bilingualism
It refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers.
A linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.
For example, in Canada, both English and French are official languages.
Bilingualism 现象存在
⑴Canada: English and French
⑵Finland: Finnish and Swedish
⑶Belgium: French and Flemish Dutch
17.双言现象 Diglossia
A sociolinguistic situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each serving a particular social function and used for a particular situation.
Diglossia 现象存在
⑴mostly in Arabic-speaking countries,
⑵Modern Greek, Swiss German and Haitian Creole.
⑶in Paraguay, Spanish as the high variety and local Indian language Guarani as the low variety.

Q: 双语和双言的区分 Distinction between Bilingualism and Diglossia
Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used in a speech community; in a diglossic community, two varieties of language are used for different situations, one being more standard and higher, and used for more formal matters, and the other less prestigious, used for colloquial situations. 双言现象是一个社区有两种标准语，双言社区中，两种语言变体被用作不同的情景。一个较为标准，处于 高层次；另一个较为口语化，声望不高。

18. Most bilingual communities have one thing in common, that’s a fairly clear functional differentiation of the two languages in respect of speech situation known as domains.

19. Social Dialect (Socialect) 社会方言:
教育变体 Education varieties
年龄变体 Age varieties        
性别变体 Gender varieties   
语域变体 Register varieties
称谓术语 Address terms
俚语 Slang
语言禁语 Linguistic taboo
委婉 Euphemism - from a Greek word

语言禁忌 Linguistic taboo
An obscene, profane, or swear word or expression that is prohibited from general use by the educated and “polite” society.
Christains 的禁忌语 'take the lord's name in vain', 如 hell, darn
In England, 'bloody’ is a taboo word which originally referred to the blood of Christ, some 'respectable' people consider it a horrid word on a par with  obscene or profane language and constantly in the mouths of uneducated speakers.

委婉语 Euphemism
A word or expression that is thought to be mild, indirect, or less offensive and used as a polite substitute for the supposedly harsh and unpleasant word or expression.
委婉语 portly, full-figured 代 fat, inexpensive 代 cheap, indisposed 代 sick

习语 Idiolect=Personal dialect
A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines aspects of all the elements regarding regional, social, and stylistic variation, in one form or another.

称呼术语 Address Terms
An address term, or address form refers to the word or words used to address somebody in speech or writing.
One specific aspect of situational use of language is address term usage.
The English system of adress terms 称谓方法
    first name：Esperanto    last name : Du   
    title+last name : Mr. Du
    title alone : Professor        
    kin term  : Dad

俚语 Slang
It’s a casual use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.

词汇方面，年龄和时代的不同 is more noticeable across three generation time span than two-generation time span.
当五岁时, syntax is more standard, vocaulary is limited;
十岁时, comparatively extensive vocabulary, structure of utterance does not differ from adults’ speech.

An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less priviledged population that has experienced social isolation, such as racial discrimination or segregation.
The most widespread and most familiar ethnic variety of the English langauge is Black English.
20. 黑人英语的特点
⑴ One of the most prominent phonological features of Black English is the simplification of a consonant cluster at the end of a word dropping the word-final phoneme, e.g.: 'desk' pronounced as/des/, 'told' pronounced as /tou/ 音系特征，通过去掉词尾的音素简化位于词尾辅音连缀。
⑵ One of the syntactic features of Black English is the absence of the copula, such as “they mine”, “you crazy”. Copula deletion as such occurs in some other English dialects, as well as in language like Arabic, Russian and Chinese 语法特征，经常缺失系词.
⑶ The double negation construction with sentence like 'I donot know nobody' 语法特征，双重否定结构.
黑人英语的 disinctive features persist not for racial, but for social, educational and economic reasons

Language reflects deep-rooted sexist social attitude toward females by the way neutral terms are interpreted.
21. List several ways of speech of women and men differ from each other 列举女性言语和男性言语相异的方面
⑴Women tend to use more presigious forms, more polite and indirect language, and more specific color terms than their male counterparts.
⑵Women use more questions than declarative statements than males.


Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics

1. 早期学者针对语言和思想的观点
⑴Plato suggested that thought was the soul’s discourse with itself. 柏拉图认为语言和思想相互统一的。
⑵Aristotle, who argued that mankind could not have the same languages and that languages were but signs of psychological experiences. 亚里士多德认为语言只是人类体现的符号。
The debate between them, one being mentalist, another empiricist. 两个人的观点向背。一个是心灵主义，另一个是经验主义。
⑶Watson, thinking involved the same motor activities used in speaking; Bloomfield, thinking was a system of movements that had been reduced from actual speech to the point where they were no longer visible.
美国的 Watson 承袭了 Plato 的观点，Bloomfield 提出了近似的观点。

2. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 假设
A theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf which states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language. 人们看世界的方式完全或部分地由他们母语的结构决定
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis proposes that the language we speak determines the way we perceive the world and so the nature of thought.
3.语言决定论 Linguistic determinism
Whorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language, or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.
4.语言相对论 Linguistic relativism
It refers to the belief that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background.
It’s hypothesis proposed by an American linguist Benjamin Lee Whorf concerning language and thought.

5.无声言语 Subvocal Speech
A term used to refer to thought when thought and language are identical or closely parallel to each other. 用于指语言和思维是同一或近乎相同的
overt thought 或 subvocal speech（均可用下面定义）
Language and thought may be viewed as indpenedent circles overlapping in some parts, where language and thought are consistent with each other and one never occurs without the other,
When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as ‘subvocal speech’, and speech as ‘overt thought’.

Q: how in your opinion does language relate thought and culture?
Language doesn’t determine the way the speaker perceives the world, but largely functions as a means by which information can be stored and received, by which a culture transmits its belief, values and norms, and by which the speaker interacts with other members of the cultures.

6. Language is a conventional coding system to express thought. The relationship between the name and the meaning of a word is quite arbitrary.
7. We recognize that language doesn’t determine so much the way we think as it influences the way we perceive the world and recall things, and affects the ease with which we perform mental tasks.

8. The human brain is the most complicated organ of the body.
9.神经元 Neurons
Lying under the skull, the human brain contains an average of ten billion nerve cells called Neurons.
10.大脑皮层 Cerebral Cortex
The outside surface of the brain which receives messages from all the sensory organs and where human cognitive abilities reside. 接受所有感觉器官传来的信息，是人的认知能力所存在的区域。
11. The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain---Cerebral cortex.
12. The Cortex is the decision-making organ of the body, receiving messages from all the sensory organs and initiating all voluntary actions.
13.脑半球 Hemispheres
The brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called hemisphere.
14. Three areas of the left hemisphere are vital to language:
        Broca’s area=Expression
        Wernicke’s area=Understanding
        Angular gyrus=converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form, vice versa
15. Broca’s area - French Surgeon: Paul Broca
The language centre in the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere is know as Broca’s area.
16.法国外科医生 Broca 是第一个证明 damage to a specific area of the brain results in a speech production deficit.
17.德国内科医生 Carl Wernicke 在 1874 发表的论文假设 there was more than one language area in the left brain.
18. When we listen, the word is heard and comprehended via Wernicke’s area.
19. Angular gyrus lies behind Wernicke’s area. This area is crucial for the matching of a spoken form with a perceived object, for the naming of objects, for the comprehension of written language and for connections between visual and speech organs.

20.大脑侧化 Brain Lateralization
The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain. 认知机能和感知机能位于大脑的某一半球。
21. 大脑侧化 for major mental functions under control of each hemisphere
Left hemisphere                                                          Right hemisphere
语言和言语 language ＆ speech                                  非语言声音的感知 perception of nonlinguistic sounds
分析性推理analytic reasoning                                     整体性推理 holistic reasoning
时间安排Temporal ordering                                        视觉和空间技能 visual ＆ spatial skills
读和写reading ＆ writing                                             图案识别 recognition of patterns
计算和联想calculation ＆associative thought           音乐旋律的识别 recognition of musical melodies
22. For most individuals, the left hemisphere is dominant for language, regardless of handiness.
23. The process of lateralization is believed to be maturational.
24.两耳分听 Dichotic Listening
A research technique which has been used to study how the brain controls hearing and language, with which subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different sounds in the right and left ear, and are then asked to repeat what they hear.
25. Evidence in support of lateralization for language in left hemisphere comes from researches in Dichotic listening tasks. 两耳分听证明了左半球的侧化。
26. Right hear advantage shows the left hemisphere is not superior for processing all sounds, but only for those that are linguistic in nature, thus providing evidence in support of view that the left side of the brain is specialized for language and that's where language centers reside. 右耳优势证明了大脑左半球并不是处理所有声音时都有优势，只是处理本质上是语言的声音时有优势：大 脑左侧负责语言，语言中枢就位于这一部分。
27.语言侧化 Linguistic lateralization
Hemispheric specialization or dominance for language.
28.关键期 the critical period
An early period of one’s life extending to the age of puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire language naturally and effortlessly, a period that coincides with the period of brain laterlization for language functions.
29. The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about two to puberty.
30. Lenneberg 的推断，推出了 Cerebral plasticity
31.判断题 A safe conclusion from Genie’s case for the moment is that the language faculty of an average human degenerates after the critical period and consequently, most linguistic skills cannot develop.

Q: in what cortical regions are speech and language thought to be localized?
In what have come to be known as Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area and angular gyrus, all located in the left hemisphere of the brain.

Q: Describe the processes of language perception, comprehension and production.
It’s been proposed that the brain activity involved in hearing, understanding and then saying a word would follow a definite pattern.
When we listen, the word is heard and comprehended via Wernicke’s area, this signal is then transferred to Broca’s area where preparations are made to produce it. A signal is then sent to the motor area controlling the vocal tract to physically articulate the word.
When we speak, words are drawn from Wernicke’s area and sent to Broca’s area which determines the details of their form and pronunciation. The appropriate instructions are then sent to the motor area.

32. Major functions of language
⑴ a means of interpersonal communication. 人际交流
⑵ a means of intrapersonal communication. 自我交流
33.自我交际 Intrapersonal communication
The process of using language within the individual to facilitate one’s own thought and aid the formulation and manipulation of concepts. 语言使用者本人用语言促进自己的思维和帮助形成和使用概念的过程。


Chapter 10  Language Acquisition

1.语言习得 Language acquisition
Language acquisition refers to the development of the Child’s acquisition of his mother tongue or first language, i.e., how he comes to understand and to speak the language of his community.
2.美国的 Stephenson Krashen 区分了 Acquisition 和 Learning
He said Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.
Learning, it is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.

3.行为主义学习理论 Behaviourist learning theory
It’s a theory of Psychology suggests that the learner’s verbal behaviour is conditioned or reinforced through association between a stimulus and response when applied to first language acquisition. 源自心理学的理论—行为主义,它认为儿童的语言行为是与他们所受刺激和随之的反应成相互条件的。   

Q: different theories of child language acquisition have been advanced. Discuss two contrasting views with reference to the behaviorist learning model and the nativist biological model. 论述行为主义学习理论和生物先天论这两种相对立的观点。
The Behaviourist view: language acquisition is a process of habit formation. Language is learned through stimulus and response. Reinforcement of selected responses is the key to understanding language development. Children learn to produce correct sentences because they are positively reinforced when they say something right and negatively reinforced when they say something wrong. 语言习得是一个习惯培养的过程。语言是通过刺激与反应学习的。对有选择的反应的强化是理解语言发展 的关键。儿童学会正确的使用语言，是因为他们正确的言语是得到积极强化而错误的言语得到消极强化。
The Nativist view: language acquisition is the species-specific property of human beings; children are born with an innate ability to acquire language; they are predisposed to develop their native language along a universal, predetermined route through similar stages. They go about acquiring the grammar of their native language using principles unique to language acquisition. 语言习得是人类特有的特性。儿童生来就具有天生的学习语言的能力，他们生来就具有习得本族语的能力， 其习得过程沿着一条普遍、自然的轨道，并经历相似的阶段。他们使用语言习得的特有天赋习得本族语的 语法。

4.第一语言的习得 the 1st language acquisition
The development of a first or native language is called the 1st language acquisition.
5. It’s normally assumed that, by the age of five, with an opening vocabulary of more than 2, 000 words, children have completed the greater part of the language acquisition process.
6.独词句 One word holophrase / holophrase
It refers to a single word that appears in children’s early speech and functions as a complex idea or sentence.
7.电报式言语 Telegraphic speech 属于 early multiword 阶段
It refers to the early speech of children. It’s so called because it lacks the same sorts of words which adults typically leave out of telegrams (such as non-substantive words and inflectional morphemes). 也可以说成缺少 inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories.
8.判断题 Children first acquire the sounds found in all languages of the world, no matter what language they are exposed to, and in later stages acquire the ‘more difficult’ sounds.
9. The emergency of articulatory skills begins around the age when children start to produce babbling sounds.
10. Researchers are particularly interested in the increasing complexity of negative sentences in child language development. They have found that correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development.
11.国际语法 Universal Grammar
That different languages have a similar level of complexity and detail, and reflect general abstract properties of the common linguistic system is called UG.
12.语法系统发展
语音 Phonology
句法 Syntax
形态 Morphology
词汇和语义 Vocabulary and semantics
13.幼儿保育员言语 Caretaker speech
Simple, modified speech used by parents, baby-sitter, ect., when they talk to young children who are acquiring their native language.

14.工具性学习动机 Instrumental motivation
The learner’s desire to learn a second language because its useful for some functional or 'instrumental' goals, such as getting a job, passing an examination, or reading for information.
15.介入性学习动机 Integrative motivation
The learner’s desire to learn a second language in order to communicate with native speakers of the target language. 为了与人交流。
16.学习者的个人因素 Individual Learner Factors
最佳学习年龄 The optimum age for 2nd language acquisition
动机 Motivation
语言文化移入 Acculturation 学习者的个性 Personality
17.语言文化移入 Acculturation
A process of adapting to the culture and value system of the second language community  

Q: what are the major individual factors for SLA?
The acquisition of a second language is dependent on a combination of factors; the rate and ultimate success in SLA are also affected by individual learner factors.
(1)The early years of one’s life before puberty;
(2)They must have strong motivation, instrumental or integrative;
(3)The extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the L2 community, that is, acculturation.
(4)Learner’s personality.

18.判断题 SLA is primarily the study of how learners acquires or learn an additional language after they have acquired their first language. (L1)



19.输入 Input
It refers to the language which a learner bears or receives and from which he or she can learn.
20.判断题 Although it's found that formal instruction hardly affects the natural route of  SLA, it does provide opportunities to receive comprehensible input, and in so doing enables the classroom learner to perform a wider range of linguistic tasks than the naturalistic learner and thereby accelerates the rate of acquisition.
尽管正规教学几乎不能影响第二语言习得的自然轨道，但却能为学习者提供接受可理解的输入信息的机 会，这样做是课堂学习者比自然学习者所进行的第二语言学习得面要广一些，从而加速其习得过程。

21.干扰 Interference
The effect of one’s first language knowledge on the learning of a second language.
22. Language transfer
It refers to the learners will subconsciously use their knowledge in learning a second language. Transfer can be either positive or negative.
23.语际语 Interlanguage
The approximate language system that a second language learner constructs which represents his or her transitional competence in the target language. 第二语言学习这在学习过程中所构建的近乎目标语的语言体系，它体现了学习者在目标学习的过渡性语言能力。
24.判断题 The learner’s transitional competence moves along a learning continuum stretching from one’s L1 competence to the target language competence.
25. About the interlanguage, specifically, it consists of a series of interlocking and approximate linguistic systems in-between and yet distinct from the learner’s native and target languages. It’s a product of L2 learning, mother tongue interference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and learning and communicative strategies of the learner. 语际语包含一系列与本族语和目的语的相关并相似的语言体系，既介于本族语和目的语之间，又不同于他 们的语言体系。语际语是第二语言训练、母语干扰、对目的语语言规则概括以及学习者的学习和交际策略 的综合产物。
26.语言僵化 Fossilization
A process that sometimes occurs in second language learning in which incorrect linguistic features (such as the accent of a grammatical pattern) become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes in the target language.
27. Discuss one major factor which contributes to the difficulties most second language learners encounter.论述导致大多数第二语言学习者学习困难的一个主要因素。
It has been suggested by some SLA scholars that learning difficulties confronting adult L2 learners arise from the fact that for most people a second language is learned in a formal setting, rather han acquired in a natural environment.
Language acquisition is contrasted with language learning on the ground that acquisition is subconscious, focusing on meaning, during which learning is conscious, focusing on form. It's argued that conscious knowledge of linguistic forms does not ensure acquisition of the rules, that is, it does not ensure an immediate guidance for actual performance. 习得是无意识的，注重的是意义；学习是由意识的，注重的是形式。
28. Enumerate some causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second language acquisition. 列举第二语言习得中出现系统性错误的一些原因
Some major causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second language acquisition include:
(1)Interference from the mother tongue 母语干扰 - Mother tongue interference is found at the level of pronunciation, morphology, syntax, vocabulary and meaning, and can be predicated by contrasting the grammatical or other systems of the native and target languages.
(2)Interlingual interference within the target language目标语的语际语干扰 - Interlingual interference, or cross-association, occurs when the learner mixes rules and patterns of the target language and produce hybrid structures.
(3)overgeneralization 过度概括 - The use of previously available strategies in new situations, i.e., the application of a particular pattern or rule of the target language in many other linguistic situations.  

29.对比分析 Contrastive Analysis
It refers to a comparative procedure used to establish linguistic differences between native and target language systems so as to predict learning difficulties caused by interference from the learner’s first language and prepare the type of teaching materials that will reduce the effects of interference.
30.错误分析 Error Analysis
An approach to the study and analysis of the errors made by the second language learners which suggests that many learner errors are not due to the  interference of learner’ s mother tongue but reflect universal learning strategies such as over-generalization and simplification of rules. 一种研究和分析第二语言学习者所犯错误的方法.它指出语言学习者所犯的许多错误不是母语干扰所致而 是体现了一些普遍的学习策略.如概括过度和规则简化。

课外练习资料考点
1. tone
Tone are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Tone is a suprasegmental feature.
2. Negative transfer
Negative transfer occurs when the first language pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language. It’s commonly known as interference because it would lead to difficulties or errors in second language learning.
3. hapology?
It refers to the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence,
For example, the old English word 'engla-land' (the land of Angles) came to be pronounced 'England' through the assimilation of 'la-la' sounds.
4. relational opposites
Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites.
5.语言判定 Linguistic determinism
It refers to the fact that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on langauge, to put it more bluntly, language determines thought.
6.语调 intonation
When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
There are 4 types of intonation:
The falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone.
7.深层结构 Deep structure
It’s an abstract level representing the basis for the meaning of a sentence. It consists of a structure generated by phrase structure rules and contains lexical items from the lexcion, but no transformations have yet applied to it.
8. Diacritics
Diacritics are a set of symbols that added to the letter symbols to make finer distinctions than the letters alone. Diacritics are only used in narrow transcription. For example, in broad transcription, the symbol [l:] is used for the sound [l] in words like leaf [li:f], feel[fi:l].
9.历史和比较语言学 Historical and comparative linguistics
It’s a study of ongoing changes that languages have undergone.
It’s historical because it deals with the historical development of individual languages.
It’s comparative in the sense that it aims at developing and elucidating the genetic relationships that exist between and among languages, classifying related languages into language families and reconstructing their ancestral languages.
10.正向转移 Positive transfer
Transfer can be positive or negative. Presumably, positive transfer occurs when a first language pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target language. e.g.: French people find no difficulty in learning the English word 'table' cos it has the same meaning as the French word 'table'.
11.反向转移 Negative transfer
Negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language. 反向转移即人们常说的干扰
干扰 Interference
The effect of one’s first language knowledge on the learning of a second language.
12. Intrapersonal communication
It refers to one of the two major functions that language serves. As a means of intrapersonal communication, language facilitates thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual.
13. Why is the word order in Modern English more rigid than that in Old English?
Because in Modern English there are no longer the elaborate morphological system used in Old English, such as the case marking system, to help to indicate grammatical relations. Therefore, it is no longer possible to identify the functional roles of nouns by their inflectional endings. The functional notions of subject and object have to be indicated largely by the syntactic position of nouns in a linear order, resulting in a system with stricter constraints on word order.
14. What features of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?
Language is a rule-governed system.
Language is basically vocal.
Language is arbitrary.
Language is used for human communication.
15. What’s Broca’s area and what will happen if any damage is inflicted upon it?
⑴In 1861, a French surgeon and anatomist Paul Broca discovered that somewhere in the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere had something to do with speech difficulty. This place is known as Broca’s area.
⑵Any damage to sites in the left cerebral hemisphere will result in a patient’s language disorder, whereas destruction of corresponding sites in the right hemisphere leave linguistic capacities intact.
⑶Therefore if any damage is inflicted upon this area, it will result in word difficulties and problems with syntax.
16. Sate briefly your understanding of the differences between the term acquisition and the term learning in language acquisition study?
⑴The distinction between acquisition and learning was proposed by the American SLA scholar Stephen Krashen on the assumption that they are different processes.
⑵Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.
⑶Learning is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.
⑷It’s recognized that children acquired their native language without explicit learning, while a second language is more commonly learned but to some degree may also be acquired, depending on the environmental setting and the input received by the L2 learner.
⑸A rule can be learned before it is internalized (i.e. acquired), but having learned a rule does not necessarily preclude having to acquire it later.
17. Suprasegmental features? How does it function in conveying meaning?
⑴the phonological features that occur above the sound segmental level are called suprasegmental features.
⑵the major suprasegmental features of English includes word stress, sentence stress and intonation.
⑶the suprasegmental features distinguish meanings. 超切分特征是在语音切分成分层面之上的音系特征。主要包括单词重音、语句重音和语调。 超切分特征区分意义。
18. What is the nature of language change in historical linguistics?
⑴language change is inevitable.
⑵as a general rule, language change is universal, continuous, to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.
⑶language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar---in phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantics.
⑷when language change is in progress, phonemes, morphemes, words, and grammatical rules may be borrowed, added, lost, or altered, and meanwhile, the meaning of individual lexical items or strings of words may expand, narrow, or shift.
19. What’s the difference between the instrumental motivation and the integrative motivation of the learner? 工具性与介入性学习动机的不同点？
⑴usually, adults are motivated to learn a second language because of a communicative need, they may learn a second language in order to use it functionally when they intend to use it as an instrument for the purpose.
⑵in certain situations an integrative motivation may be more powerful in facilitations and may count for more.
⑶when the target language functions as a foreign language, the learner is likely to benefit from an integrative motivation.
⑷but when the target language functions as a second language, an instrumental motivation is more effective.
20. 词素的类别和使用 How many morphemes are there in English? State what they are and illustrate how they work?
⑴there are two: free and bound morphemes.
⑵free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.
⑶bound morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes.
⑷either free or bound, to form a word, it includes 2 types:
A root is often seen as part of a word, it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning, and it must be combined with other root or an affix to form a word.
⑸Affixes are morphemes that are added to an already existing morpheme to form a new word while changing its meaning and grammatical relations; it consists of both inflectional and derivational affixes.
21. 语言的两种功能 two functions of language
Two major functions are interpersonal and intrapersonal communication. 人际交流和自我交流
⑴ language functions as a means of interpersonal communication when language users use it to convey information, thoughts and feelings from one person to another or to control each other’ s behavior.
⑵ it functions as a means of intrapersonal communication when it is used as a means of facilitate thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual.
22. 为什么说结构树形图比线形图可更好的说明句子的层次性？Why do we say tree diagrams are more advantageous and informative than linear structure in analyzing the constituent relationship among linguistic elements?
⑴in addition to revealing a linear order, a constituent structure tree has a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, and consequently is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.
⑵线形结构无法解释或说明有歧义的句子。for example, the phrase 'the old men and women' may have two interpretations. The adject 'old' may modify the noun 'men', but not 'women'. or both. linear order analysis cannot tell this difference, so it’s ambiguous. the constituent of tree diagrams analysis can make this difference clear.
23. 音素、音位、音位变体的定义及关系 Explain with examples notions of phone, phoneme and allophone, and how they are related.
⑴A phone is a speech sound, it is a phonetic unit; any sound we hear in the course of communication is a phone, such as [ u:], [ l ];
⑵A phoneme is a phonological unit, it’s not a concrete sound but an abstract notion, and it’s a collection of features. It can be realized by different phones in different phonetic contexts. Such as, the phoneme[ l ] can be realized as a clear [ l ] or a dark [ l ], depending on where it occurs in a sound combination.
⑶The actually phonetic realization of a phoneme are called its allophones, and allophones are the actual phones we hear in linguistic communication.

kaoyan

好帖，感谢分享

Z69@

赞赞，楼楼你分享的语言资料是哪本参考书上的，看了云大官网没发现参考书目。